This article reviews how colonial rule and African actions during the colonial period affected the resources and institutional settings for subsequent economic development south of the Sahara. The issue is seen from the perspective of the dynamics of development in what was in an overwhelmingly land-abundant region characterised by shortages of labour and capital, by perhaps surprisingly Außenpolitisch markierte die Kaffeekrise eine Neuorientierung der DDR-Außen- und Entwicklungspolitik hin zu einer deutlich stärkeren Ökonomisierung. Insbesondere wurden Tauschgeschäfte von Waffen und LKW aus der DDR gegen Rohkaffee und Energierohstoffe aus den Partnerländern angestrebt Der Begriff Kriegsberichterstattung bezeichnet die journalistische Berichterstattung in Massenmedien über Kriege und kriegsähnliche Auseinandersetzungen und Konflikte. Dazu gehören sowohl die Berichterstattung über die politischen und militärischen Ereignisse an sich als auch Hintergrundberichte zu entsprechenden diplomatischen, humanitären und wirtschaftlichen Themen
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Home Issues 1 Dossier Afrique : 50 ans d'indé African Economic Development and This article reviews how colonial rule and African actions during the colonial period affected the resources dissertation entwicklungspolitik institutional settings for subsequent economic development south of the Sahara. The issue is seen from the perspective of the dynamics of development in what was in an overwhelmingly land-abundant region characterised by shortages of labour and capital, by perhaps surprisingly extensive indigenous market activities and by varying but often low levels of political centralisation, dissertation entwicklungspolitik.
Besides asking about the strength of the influence of the past on the future, we need to consider the nature of that influence. Did colonial rule put African countries on a higher or lower path of economic change?
Thus, chapter 2 first attempts a summary of the economic record since independence in order to define the pattern for which colonial legacies may have been partly responsible, dissertation entwicklungspolitik. Chapter 3 outlines contending views of those legacies. Chapter 4 tries to define the economic and political structures and trends within Africa on the eve of the European partition of the continent. It identifies dissertation entwicklungspolitik emerging African comparative advantage in land-extensive forms of production, which West Africans in particular were already exploiting and, by their investments and initiatives, deepening.
It is a theme of this essay, however, that another kind of variation between colonies was more important, i. Chapter 6 considers how far colonial rule and the actions of European companies that it facilitated reinforced the emergence of a comparative advantage in land-extensive primary exports and looks at the consequences of this for the welfare of the population, dissertation entwicklungspolitik.
Chapter 8 assesses the impact of different kinds of European regime on African entrepreneurship and on institutions facilitating, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, hindering or channelling African participation in markets, dissertation entwicklungspolitik.
Chapter 9 completes the substantive discussion by commenting on the long-term effects of the colonial intrusion on the capacity of the State in Africa for facilitating and promoting economic development. But there have been important changes, and variations over space, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, in policy and performance.
In policy, structural adjustment in the s marked a watershed: dissertation entwicklungspolitik fundamental shift from administrative dissertation entwicklungspolitik market means dissertation entwicklungspolitik resource allocation.
The change, however, was less dramatic in most of the former French colonies, dissertation entwicklungspolitik except in Guinea the maintenance of a convertible currency had enabled governments to avoid some of the supplementary price and quantity controls which had increasingly been imposed in the mostly former British colonies outside the franc zone. In performance, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, aggregate economic growth rates in the region were pretty respectable until Jerven It averaged an annual GDP growth of 9.
Meanwhile, Ghana did almost dissertation entwicklungspolitik opposite. Ghanaian GDP per capita was barely higher inwhen it began structural adjustment, than at independence in Only one Sub-Saharan economy, Botswana, sustained growth over three, indeed four, decades since its independence, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, which was in Botswana averaged 9, dissertation entwicklungspolitik.
Daron Acemoglu, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, Simon Johnson and James A. where the dissertation entwicklungspolitik remained overwhelmingly in African ownership, we will see that major parts of the services sector were effectively monopolised by Europeans.
Then there was coercive recruitment of labour by colonial administrations, whether to work for the State or for European private enterprise Fall ; Northrup At a time when development economists especially but not exclusively those writing in French tended to favour a leading role for the State in the search for development in mixed economies Hugon ; Killick P.
Bauer ; attacked the late colonial State for introducing statutory marketing boards and thereby laying the foundation of what he considered to be deadening State interventionism. With respect to tariffs, this case would apply less strongly to French colonies because of the protectionism of the French empire. It is also much less true of the final 30 years of British rule in Africa, which saw not only tariffs but also the creation of marketing boards.
From the perspective of institutional change, a fundamental observation applicable to the region generally was highlighted by John Sender and Sheila Smith There are different routes to this conclusion. Many historians are struck by the brevity of colonial rule south of the Sahara, i. about 60 years in most of tropical Africa Ajayiand by the weakness of the colonial Dissertation entwicklungspolitik Herbst More ambivalent are the arguments of Jean-François Bayart ; Building on the familiar observation that rulers in Africa have usually found it hard to raise large revenues from domestic sources, Bayart argues that, during colonial rule and since, African elites became clients of colonial or overseas States.
Thereby they forged relations which, though unequal, benefited themselves as well as the foreigners. At dissertation entwicklungspolitik time the region was, as before, characterised generally not everywhere all the time by an abundance of cultivable land in relation to the labour available to till it Hopkins ; Austin a. For example, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, many of the major discoveries notably of oil in Nigeria and diamonds in Botswana were to occur only during the period of decolonisation.
Moreover, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, the fertility of much of the land was relatively low or at least fragile, making it costly or difficult to pursue intensive cultivation, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, especially in the absence of animal manure, dissertation entwicklungspolitik. Sleeping sickness prevented the use of large animals, whether for ploughing or transport, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, in the forest zones and much of the savannas.
The extreme seasonality of the annual distribution of rainfall rendered much of dissertation entwicklungspolitik dry season effectively unavailable for farm work. The consequent dissertation entwicklungspolitik opportunity cost of dry-season labour reduced the incentive to raise labour productivity in craft production.
Conversely, the characteristic choices of farming techniques were land-extensive and labour-saving; but the thinness of the soils constrained the returns on labour Austin a. All this helps to explain why the productivity of African labour was apparently higher outside Africa over several centuries, cf. the underlying economic logic of the external slave trades which in turn, ironically, aggravated the scarcity of labour within Africa itself Austin b; Manning The last half-century of research has progressively changed this assessment, especially for West Africa where a strong tendency towards extra-subsistence production was evident in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Given the relative scarcity of labour, and in the absence generally of significant economies of scale in production, it was rare for the reservation wage the minimum wage rate sufficient to persuade people to sell their labour rather than work for themselves to be low enough for a would-be employer to afford to pay it.
Hence the labour markets of pre-colonial Africa mainly took the form of slave trading Austindissertation entwicklungspolitik, chapters 6, 8; Austin a, dissertation entwicklungspolitik. Political fragmentation had facilitated the Atlantic slave trade, in that larger States would have had stronger incentives and capacities for rejecting participation in it Inikori This fragmentation later facilitated the European conquest.
The land-labour ratio, the environmental constraints on intensive agriculture and also the specific qualities of particular kinds of land in various parts of the continent gave Africa at least a potential comparative advantage in land-extensive primary production.
By the time of colonisation, especially in West Africa, the indigenous populations were increasingly taking advantage of the combination of these supply-side features and of access to expanding overseas markets.
From Senegal to Cameroon thousands of tonnes of groundnuts and palm oil, and from the s rubber, were being produced for sale to European merchants Law dissertation entwicklungspolitik for taxpayers in Europe.
The British doctrine was that each colony should be fiscally self-supporting. In practice the French were equally committed to covering costs, dissertation entwicklungspolitik. In French West Africa too there was a major programme of public works in the s, although, as also in Ghana, within a few years expenditure had to be curtailed when export prices fell and the growth of revenue ended Hopkins In principle this came partly from the metropolitan taxpayer.
However, in the French case Patrick Manninghas calculated that the government continued to receive more in tax from Africa than it spent in Africa.
In British West Africa the new statutory export marketing boards accrued substantial surpluses by keeping a large margin between the price paid to producers and the price that the boards received for the crop on the world market. The surpluses were kept in Dissertation entwicklungspolitik, in British government bonds, as forced savings from African farmers Rimmer, which assisted the British metropolitan economy to recover from the post-war dollar shortage.
On the whole it is arguable that, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, in economic terms, the similarities were much greater than the differences, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, except when the latter arose from the composition of their respective African empires.
French rule, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, like British, relied on African intermediaries, including chiefs, even though France was much more insistent on dissertation entwicklungspolitik African monarchies as in Dahomey, in contrast to the British treatment of the structures and dynasties of the States of Buganda, Botswana, Lesotho and, after an abortive attempt at abolition, Ashanti. In West Africa the French made much greater dissertation entwicklungspolitik of forced labour, but that was primarily because the French territories were, from the start, relatively lacking in cash-earning and therefore wage-paying potential.
In explanation, they emphasise the importance of greater investment in education in the British colonies than the French colonies in their sample, dissertation entwicklungspolitik. This is a novel and important line of inquiry. The risks entailed in extreme specialisation, however, need dissertation entwicklungspolitik be set against the long-run income gain to be expected from the exploitation of comparative advantage.
Conflicts of ideology, and especially the balance of power between different interest groups, worked out variously across the range of African colonies. Let us consider the contrasting cases of export agriculture in the former, notably in West Africa, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, and mining in the latter, most obviously in South Africa. In West Africa in particular it was in the joint interests of the population, European merchants and the colonial administrations to further this.
In Ghana British planters were initially allowed to enter to grow cocoa beans. Colonial reliance on the efforts of African small capitalists and peasants in the growing and local marketing of export crops paid dissertation entwicklungspolitik in what became Ghana and Nigeria, with more than fold increases in the real value of foreign trade between and Austin a,benefiting British commercial interests as well as via customs duties the colonial treasury.
The efforts of W. Lever, the soap manufacturer, to win government permission, along with the necessary coercive support, to establish huge oil palm plantations in Nigeria continued from tobut they were always rebuffed in favour dissertation entwicklungspolitik continued African occupation of virtually all agricultural land.
Ultimately this was because African producers literally delivered the goods Hopkinsthrough land-extensive methods well adapted to the factor endowment. They rejected the advice of colonial agricultural officers when it conflicted with the requirements of efficient adaptation Austin a. They did this partly by investment in transport infrastructure, investment to which African entrepreneurs also contributed Austin Equally important, although the colonial administration never really established a system of land titling, in Ghana for example it upheld the indigenous customary right of farmers to ownership of trees they had planted, irrespective of the outcome of any later litigation about the ownership of the land the trees stood upon.
However, some generalisations are possible. In contrast, it was only in the s that the real wages of black gold-miners in South Africa began a sustained rise above their early 20th century level Lipton These were not selected for European settlement, nor were their economies driven by strong African rural-capitalist and peasant production.
They had to rely on seasonal exports of male wage labourers, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, and on dissertation entwicklungspolitik the less lucrative cash crops such as cotton, the timing of whose labour requirements conflicted with those of food crops, thereby creating risks to food security Tosh A current wave of research, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, led by Alexander Moradi, uses height as a measure of physical welfare.
When this research is extended to poorer colonies such as southern Sudan, Tanganyika mainland Tanzania or those in the West African Sahel, it would be no surprise if dissertation entwicklungspolitik improvements there are found to have been smaller than in the better-endowed economies studied so far.
It was particularly in selected areas of the less favourably-endowed economies that colonial governments sought to raise productivity through very large-scale, capital-intensive and authoritarian projects, notably the massive irrigation scheme of the Office du Niger in Mali and the mechanisation campaign of the East African Groundnut Project in Tanganyika.
Both were spectacular failures in their own output and productivity terms, not least because they were inefficient in relation to the prevailing factor ratios and physical environments Hogendorn and Scott ; Roberts; Van Beusekom A region in which labour as well as capital was scarce in relation to land, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, was not well suited to follow either route in the early 20th century.
Manufacturing growth was made possible by tariff protection, where locational advantage as with brewing and cement manufacture did not suffice. Crucially, mining provided the import-purchasing power to cover the import of capital goods and, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, where necessary, raw materials.
It was also the direct or indirect source of much of the revenue used by governments to invest in manufacturing, whether directly or through the provision of infrastructure. The large European populations were a source of both educated workers and capital, but arguably their most important contribution to industrialisation was the political commitment to support it even at the cost of consumer prices that were often above world market levels Austen; Kilby ; Wood and Jordan Moving up the value chain became an ambition of substantial proportions of white voters where they controlled governments, as in South Africa after and to a large extent in Southern Rhodesia fromdissertation entwicklungspolitik, as well as of African voters since independence.
Southern Rhodesia followed in the s, partly in response to the challenge of the new South African customs regime Phimister the Belgian Congo. This was absolutely not a case of settler dissertation entwicklungspolitik or autonomy. As in southern Africa, however, mines provided a favourable context for import-substituting industry, providing infrastructure, import-purchasing power and part of the market, dissertation entwicklungspolitik.
If the radical school was right about the contribution of repressive racial policies to economic growth in the early 20th century Trapidothe liberals were right about the period preceding the fall of apartheid, dissertation entwicklungspolitik, i.
the system was now a brake, not a booster, on the development of the economy Moll ; Nattrass ; Feinstein
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This article reviews how colonial rule and African actions during the colonial period affected the resources and institutional settings for subsequent economic development south of the Sahara. The issue is seen from the perspective of the dynamics of development in what was in an overwhelmingly land-abundant region characterised by shortages of labour and capital, by perhaps surprisingly Außenpolitisch markierte die Kaffeekrise eine Neuorientierung der DDR-Außen- und Entwicklungspolitik hin zu einer deutlich stärkeren Ökonomisierung. Insbesondere wurden Tauschgeschäfte von Waffen und LKW aus der DDR gegen Rohkaffee und Energierohstoffe aus den Partnerländern angestrebt Der Begriff Kriegsberichterstattung bezeichnet die journalistische Berichterstattung in Massenmedien über Kriege und kriegsähnliche Auseinandersetzungen und Konflikte. Dazu gehören sowohl die Berichterstattung über die politischen und militärischen Ereignisse an sich als auch Hintergrundberichte zu entsprechenden diplomatischen, humanitären und wirtschaftlichen Themen
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