Resistance to racial segregation and discrimination with strategies such as civil disobedience, nonviolent resistance, marches, protests, boycotts, "freedom rides," and rallies received national attention as newspaper, radio, and television reporters and cameramen documented the struggle to Aug 26, · Following is the answer key for the recently conducted General Studies Paper – 1 (Set – C) of the UPSC civil services preliminary exam. We have tried to provide best possible explanation for each question based on various authentic sources The Civil Rights Movement was a variety of activism that wanted to secure all political and social rights for African Americans in It had many different approaches from lawsuits, lobbying the federal government, massdirect action, and black power
Civil war - Wikipedia
A civil waralso known as an intrastate war in polemology[1] is civil disobedience research paper war between organized groups within the same state or country. The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, civil disobedience research paper, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies. Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. According to Patrick M.
Regan in his book Civil Wars and Foreign Powers about two thirds of the intrastate conflicts between the end of World War II and saw international civil disobedience research paper, with the United States intervening in 35 of these conflicts.
A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forcesthat is sustained, organized and large-scale, civil disobedience research paper. Civil wars may result in large numbers of casualties and the consumption of significant resources. Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the — period.
While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the midth century, the civil disobedience research paper length of those wars has resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time.
For example, civil disobedience research paper, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the Cold War.
Sincecivil disobedience research paper wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the forced displacement of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse; SomaliaBurma MyanmarUganda and Angola are examples of nations that were considered to have had promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars. James Fearona scholar of civil wars at Stanford Universitydefines a civil war as "a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies".
Some political scientists define a civil war as having more than 1, casualties, [2] while others further specify that at least must come from each side. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the Second Sudanese Civil War and Cambodian Civil Warfor example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as The Troubles of Northern Ireland and the struggle of the African National Congress in Apartheid -era South Africa.
Based on the 1,casualties-per-year criterion, there were civil wars from toof which occurred from to The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term "civil war"; nevertheless, they do outline the responsibilities of parties in "armed conflict not of an international character". This includes civil wars; however, no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions. Nevertheless, the International Committee of the Red Cross has sought to provide some clarification through its commentaries on the Geneva Conventionsnoting that the Conventions are "so general, so vague, that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms".
Accordingly, the commentaries provide for different 'conditions' on which the application of the Geneva Convention would depend; the commentary, however, points out that these should not be interpreted as rigid conditions.
The conditions listed by the ICRC in its commentary are as follows: [7] [8]. c That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or. d That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression.
b That the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. c That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance.
Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by who people are, civil disobedience research paper, whether that be defined in terms of ethnicity, religion or other social affiliationor do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war.
A comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier—Hoeffler Model, civil disobedience research paper, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from toas well as 1, five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to regression analysis to see the effect of various factors.
The factors that civil disobedience research paper shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were: [11].
A high proportion of primary commodities in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. When disaggregated, only petroleum and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary commodity.
The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth; for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.
A second source of finance is national diasporaswhich can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Civil disobedience research paper male secondary school enrollment, per capita income and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing civil disobedience research paper chance of civil war.
The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion. Low per capita income has been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for civil disobedience research paper to be true, one would expect economic inequality to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not.
The study therefore concluded that the economic model of opportunity cost better explained the findings. Most proxies for "grievance"—the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics—were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war.
A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i. the greater chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups, the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance.
The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.
David Keen, a professor at the Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics is one of the major critics of greed vs. grievance theory, defined primarily by Paul Collier, and argues the point that a conflict, although he cannot define it, cannot be pinpointed to simply one motive. He disagrees with the quantitative research methods of Collier and believes a stronger emphasis should be put on personal data and human perspective of the people in conflict.
Beyond Keen, several other authors have introduced works that either disprove greed vs. grievance theory with empirical data, or dismiss its ultimate conclusion. Authors such as Cristina Bodea and Ibrahim Elbadawi, who co-wrote the entry, civil disobedience research paper, "Riots, coups and civil war: Revisiting the greed and grievance debate", argue that empirical data can disprove many of the proponents of greed theory and make the idea "irrelevant".
Anthony Vinci makes a strong argument that "fungible concept of power and the primary motivation of survival provide superior explanations of civil disobedience research paper group motivation and, more broadly, the conduct civil disobedience research paper internal conflicts". James Fearon and David Laitin find that ethnic and religious diversity does not make civil war more likely.
Such research finds that civil wars happen because the state is civil disobedience research paper both authoritarian and democratic states can be stable if they have the financial and military capacity to put down rebellions. In a state torn by civil war, the contesting powers often do not have the ability to commit or the trust to believe in the other side's commitment to put an end to war.
Commitment problems may deter a lasting peace agreement as the powers in question are aware that neither of them is able to commit to their end of the bargain in the future.
Political scientist Barbara Walter suggests that most contemporary civil wars are actually repeats of earlier civil wars that often arise when leaders are not accountable to the public, when there is poor public participation in politics, and when there is a lack of transparency of information between the executives and the public. Walter argues that when these issues are properly reversed, they act as political and legal restraints on executive power forcing the established government to better serve the people.
Additionally, these political and legal restraints create a standardized avenue to influence government and increase the commitment credibility of established peace treaties. High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain, increased the chance of conflict, civil disobedience research paper.
Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.
There is a correlation between poverty and civil war, but the causality which causes the other is unclear. Economists Simeon Djankov and Marta Reynal-Querol argue that the correlation is spurious, and that lower income and heightened conflict are instead products of other phenomena.
The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur, civil disobedience research paper. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based.
The elapsed time may represent the depreciation of whatever capital the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, civil disobedience research paper, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds.
The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.
Evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that polygyny greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal polygamy may have more civil wars.
They argued that misogyny is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased women's rights were associated with fewer civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women's rights were controlled for. Through her studies of the Salvadoran Civil WarWood finds that traditional explanations of greed and grievance are not sufficient to explain the emergence of that insurgent movement, civil disobedience research paper. Wood also attributes participation in the civil war to the value that insurgents assigned to changing social relations in El Salvadoran experience she defines as the "pleasure of agency".
Ann Hironakaauthor of Neverending Warsdivides the modern history of civil wars into the preth century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil civil disobedience research paper fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government, civil disobedience research paper.
Following World War II the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the preth century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict.
The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in fragile states. Civil wars in the 19th century and in the early 20th century tended to be short; civil wars between and lasted on average one and half years.
This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. A rebellion which failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself normally found itself doomed to rapid destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the Paris Commune occurred almost entirely in Pariscivil disobedience research paper, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government [32] at Versailles and conquered Paris.
The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on sovereignty in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars.
For example, the pirates of the Barbary Coast were recognized as civil disobedience research paper facto states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the Ottoman Empire — their nominal state government — to gain recognition of their sovereignty.
Conversely, civil disobedience research paper, states such as Virginia and Massachusetts in the United States of America did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede. The two major global ideologies, monarchism and democracyled to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period.
The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable, civil disobedience research paper.
The Great Powers defined in the Congress of Vienna as the United KingdomHabsburg AustriaPrussiaFranceand Russia would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions nearly always proved decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period.
The American Civil War — was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a war of attritionrather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm.
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A civil war, also known as an intrastate war in polemology, is a war between organized groups within the same state or blogger.com aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a calque of Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the various civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st The Civil Rights Movement was a variety of activism that wanted to secure all political and social rights for African Americans in It had many different approaches from lawsuits, lobbying the federal government, massdirect action, and black power Resistance to racial segregation and discrimination with strategies such as civil disobedience, nonviolent resistance, marches, protests, boycotts, "freedom rides," and rallies received national attention as newspaper, radio, and television reporters and cameramen documented the struggle to
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